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Assessment of regional exposure factors associated with soil impact in cities of the Arctic region
- Authors: Deryabin A.N.1, Unguryanu T.N.2
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Affiliations:
- Federal Service for Surveillance over Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing, Arkhangelsk Region office
- Northern State Medical University
- Issue: Vol 31, No 4 (2024)
- Pages: 268-278
- Section: ORIGINAL STUDY ARTICLES
- Submitted: 08.04.2024
- Accepted: 17.10.2024
- Published: 12.12.2024
- URL: https://hum-ecol.ru/1728-0869/article/view/630140
- DOI: https://doi.org/10.17816/humeco630140
- ID: 630140
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Abstract
Background: Unfavorable climatic conditions determine the interaction between people and soil in northern territories, differing from those in southern regions of Russia. When assessing risks, standard exposure factors (EFs) must be adjusted to reflect regional characteristics.
Aim: TO study regional EFs used to assess health risk from exposure to chemical soil pollutants in urban areas of the Arctic zone.
Material and methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out by questioning 752 children aged 1–6 years, 1027 children aged 7–17 years, and 323 adults aged 18 years and older, all living in the cities of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation. Physiological and behavioral EFs related to soil exposure were studied. The median (Me), relative frequencies, and 95% confidence intervals were used to describe the data. To test the null hypotheses, the nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test, Wilcoxon two-sample test, and χ-square test were used.
Results: Chi ldren aged 1–6 years spent an average of 10 more days in the city compared to children aged 7–17 years and adults ( p <0.001). Children aged 1–6 years also spent 3.2 times more days playing on soil/sand (Me=48 days) and 1.3 times more time playing daily (Me=50 min/day) than children aged 7–17 years ( p <0.001). Adults spent 1.7 times more days on land from May to October (Me=50 days) and worked with soil 2.2 times more time daily (130 min/day) than children aged 7–17 years ( p <0.001). Average daily doses for oral exposure to soil chemicals, calculated using regional EFs, are 2–10 times higher in children from the Arkhangelsk agglomeration and 5 and 1.2 times lower in adults compared to doses calculated using WHO and US EPA recommended EFs values.
Conclusion: Differenc es were revealed in quantitative and categorical values of most regional EFs associated with the soil ingress in the body across different age groups. Using the characteristic regional exposure factors of specific population allows for improving the accuracy and reliability of the assessed risk to public health.
Full Text
Background
Assessment of population health risks from environmental chemical exposure is widely recognized as an interdisciplinary field in modern science and practice. It prioritizes accuracy of risk levels, scientific validity, and the effectiveness of regulatory decisions based on such assessments [1]. A critical phase of risk assessment involves evaluating exposure factors (EFs). This phase quantifies the exposure of human body to pollutants through contact with various environmental media (air, water, soil, food) [2, 3]. Exposure and risk calculations utilize factors reflecting physiological parameters, human activities, lifestyle, and behavioral patterns. These incorporate region-specific characteristics of studied population groups [3].
Extensive international research has established national and international EF databases for health risk assessment. A significant body of reference data on various EFs can be found in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) guidelines which are regularly updated with data from population surveys [4–7]. European guidance covers EFs for 30 EU countries and the UK [8]. Australia's national EF guidelines have been developed for population health risk assessment [9].
In Russia, studies assessing regional EFs through population surveys have been conducted in Moscow, Lipetsk, Ryazan, Novodvinsk, and other cities. These studies sometimes revealed regional EFs to be lower than reference values [10].
Inaccurate EF values increase uncertainty and may distort calculated health risks. Therefore, recommended EFs constitute reference data requiring adjustments for regional specificity.
Soil is a critical environmental medium influencing human health and living conditions. Soil pollutants may enter and adversely affect the body via direct contact (hand-digging soil, barefoot walking, soil ingestion, hand-to-mouth transfer, sandbox play, etc.) and media indirectly contacting soil (water, air) [11–15].
This research targets three major industrial cities in the Arkhangelsk agglomeration (Arkhangelsk, Severodvinsk, Novodvinsk), located within the Arctic zone.1 The harsh Arctic climate (cold; high winds; elevated humidity; short daylight hours; persistent snow cover ≥6 months) dictates fundamentally different soil-contact behaviors than those observed in Russian southern regions [16]. Therefore, investigating soil-attributed EFs in the Arctic zone cities remains relevant.
The work aimed to investigate regional EFs across different age groups, enabling accurate health risk assessment for soil-borne chemical exposures in the Arctic zone cities.
Methods
Regional soil EFs were assessed through a population survey across the Arkhangelsk agglomeration in a cross-sectional study. The survey included 2102 participants: 752 children aged 1–6 years, 1027 children aged 7–17 years, and 323 adults (≥18 years). Children were surveyed at preschools and schools, while adults were surveyed at workplaces (companies and enterprises). Data on regional EFs for children aged 1–6 years were obtained from their parents. The response rate was 87%. A modified questionnaire developed by the Federal State Budgetary Institution Center for Strategic Planning and Management of Biomedical Health Risks of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, which covered the following information: body weight (kg), body surface area (m2), exposure duration (outdoor time, min/day; soil/sand play, days/year; soil-contact during play, min/day; land plot staying, days/year; soil-handling duration during plot activities, min/day; urban stay during the year, days/year). Additional data obtained during the survey included months of starting and finishing soil/sand play, child behaviors (hand/toy mouthing during play, soil/sand ingestion, consumption of soil/sand-contaminated vegetables and berries, and habits of post-exposure handwashing, washing homegrown vegetables and berries, glove use (rubber or cotton) during soil handling). The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education Northern State Medical University (Arkhangelsk) of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation (Protocol of the Ethics Committee No. 1 dated November 02, 2016).
Comparative analysis of EFs across age groups was performed for the population of the Arkhangelsk agglomeration. Regional EF values were compared against standard EF values recommended by WHO [17] and other countries (USA, Australia, Canada, Japan) [4–7, 9, 18, 19]. Considering that multiple EFs are used to calculate chemical dose load assessment, we conducted comparative analysis of doses for 10 soil-contaminating chemicals (copper, chromium, zinc, nickel, manganese, lead, mercury, cadmium, cobalt, and arsenic) via oral exposure. Dose calculations utilized both regional and standard EF values [17].
Quantitative variables were described using medians (Me) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for Me. As quantitative data distribution significantly deviated from normal, group comparisons employed the Kruskal–Wallis test, while pairwise comparisons used the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Categorical data were presented as absolute numbers, relative frequencies, and 95% CIs. The chi-square test (χ2) was used to test null hypotheses between categorical variables. A p-value of 0.05 served as the critical significance threshold. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA 18.0 software.
To compare exposure levels of soil-contaminating chemicals, average daily lead doses were calculated using regional EF values and standards from WHO and US EPA, using the following formula [17]:
I=Cs×FI×ET×CF₂×IRa×ED/(BWI=×AT×365),
where I is soil intake (mg/(kg×day)); Cs is soil concentration (mg/kg); FI is contaminated soil fraction (per unit value); ET is exposure time (hr/day); CF₂ is conversion factor (ET/24 day/hr); IRa is intake rate (mg/day); ED is exposure duration (years); BW is body weight (kg); AT is exposure averaging time (years).
Results
Analysis of survey results revealed differences in quantitative and categorical values of most EFs across age groups (Tables 1, 2). At the median level, children's body weight in 1–6 year and 7–17 year age groups was 3.8-fold and 1.5-fold lower than that of adults, respectively (p <0.001). Median values of body surface area for 7–17-year-old children and adults were 1.9-fold and 2.4-fold greater than for 1–6-year-old children, respectively (p <0.001).
Table 1. Characteristics of quantitative exposure factors among the population of the cities of the Arkhangelsk agglomeration (according to the survey)
Factors | Units | 1–6-year-old children (group 1) | 7–17-year-old children (group 2) | Adults (group 3) | p | ||||||
Ме | 95% CI for Me | Ме | 95% CI for Me | Ме | 95% CI for Me | ||||||
lower | upper | lower | upper | lower | upper | ||||||
Body weight | kg | 18.0 | 17.5 | 18.0 | 45.0 | 43.0 | 46.0 | 68.0 | 66.0 | 70.0 | pa <0.001 |
Body surface area | m2 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 1.8 | pa <0.001 |
Exposure duration | |||||||||||
Urban stay | days/year | 325 | 320 | 330 | 315 | 309 | 315 | 315 | 305 | 315 | pa <0.001 |
Outdoor stay | min/day | 150 | 150 | 150 | 180 | 150 | 180 | 300 | 270 | 330 | pa <0.001 |
Soil/sand play | days/year | 48 | 42 | 50 | 15 | 12 | 16 | – | – | – | pb <0.001 |
Soil/sand play duration | min/day | 50 | 45 | 60 | 40 | 40 | 50 | – | – | – | pb =0.001 |
Land plot stay | days/year | – | – | – | 30 | 30 | 30 | 50 | 40 | 50 | pb <0.001 |
Soil-handling duration | min/day | – | – | – | 60 | 60 | 70 | 130 | 120 | 130 | pb <0.001 |
Note. Ме — median; pa — comparison of median values by the Kruskal–Wallis test; pb — comparison of median values by the Wilcoxon test; «–» — no data because survey was not conducted.
Table 2. Characteristics of categorical exposure factors among the population of the cities of the Arkhangelsk agglomeration (according to the survey)
Factors | 1–6-year-old children (group 1) | 7–17-year-old children (group 2) | Adults (group 3) | p | ||||||
abs. | % | 95% CI | abs. | % | 95% CI | abs. | % | 95% CI | ||
Month of the soil play start | χ2=46,9 p <0,001 | |||||||||
April | 258 | 34.7 | 31.4–38.2 | 71 | 18.5 | 14.9–22.7 | – | – | – | |
May | 339 | 45.6 | 42.1–49.2 | 198 | 51.6 | 46.6–56.5 | – | – | – | |
June | 119 | 16.0 | 13.5–18.8 | 99 | 25.8 | 21.6–30.4 | – | – | – | |
July | 13 | 1.8 | 1.0–3.0 | 15 | 3.9 | 2.4–6.4 | – | – | – | |
August | 14 | 1.9 | 1.1–3.2 | 1 | 0.3 | 0.04–1.8 | – | – | – | |
Month of the soil play end | χ2=115,0 p <0,001 | |||||||||
August | 32 | 4.4 | 3.1–6.1 | 38 | 9.9 | 7.3–13.3 | – | – | – | |
September | 133 | 18.1 | 15.5–21.1 | 159 | 41.4 | 36.6–46.4 | – | – | – | |
October | 194 | 26.4 | 23.4–29.7 | 101 | 26.3 | 22.1–30.9 | – | – | – | |
November | 375 | 51.1 | 47.5–54.7 | 86 | 22.4 | 18.5–26.8 | – | – | – | |
Leaving the city | χ2=31,3 p <0,001 | |||||||||
Yes | 642 | 88.3 | 85.8–90.5 | 968 | 95.5 | 94.0–96.6 | 293 | 90.7 | 87.0–93.4 | |
No | 85 | 11.7 | 9.5–14.2 | 46 | 4.5 | 3.4–6.0 | 30 | 9.3 | 6.6–13.0 | |
Factors contributing to soil intake | ||||||||||
Put hands or toys in their mouth when playing with sand or soil | χ2=10,2 p <0,001 | |||||||||
Yes | 116 | 15.5 | 13.1–18.3 | 35 | 8.8 | 6.4–12.0 | – | – | – | |
No | 633 | 84.5 | 81.7–86.9 | 363 | 91.2 | 88.0–93.6 | – | – | – | |
Ingest (put) sand in their mouth while playing with sand or soil | χ2=11,4 p <0,001 | |||||||||
Yes | 33 | 4.4 | 3.1–6.1 | 3 | 0.8 | 0.2–2.3 | – | – | – | |
No | 716 | 95.6 | 93.9–96.9 | 395 | 99.3 | 97.7–99.8 | – | – | – | |
Put soil-contaminated vegetables and berries into their mouths | χ2=22,4 p <0,001 | |||||||||
Yes | 112 | 15.0 | 12.6–17.7 | 22 | 5.5 | 3.7–8.3 | – | – | – | |
No | 636 | 85.0 | 82.3–87.4 | 376 | 94.5 | 91.7–96.3 | – | – | – | |
Cleaning hands after walks | χ2=41,8 p <0,001 | |||||||||
Wash with water | 733 | 99.7 | 98.9–99.9 | 973 | 94.8 | 93.3–96.0 | 317 | 98.1 | 95.9–99.2 | |
Wipe hands with wet wipes | 1 | 0.1 | 0.02–1.00 | 41 | 4.0 | 3.0–5.4 | 2 | 0.6 | 0.2–2.4 | |
Do not clean hands | 1 | 0.1 | 0.02–1.00 | 12 | 1.2 | 0.7–2.0 | 4 | 1.2 | 0.5–3.3 | |
Wash vegetables and berries grown at their land plot (dacha) before eating | χ2=13,3 p <0,001 | |||||||||
Yes | – | – | – | 578 | 93.5 | 91.3–95.2 | 279 | 86.4 | 82.2–89.7 | |
No | – | – | – | 40 | 6.5 | 4.8–8.7 | 44 | 13.6 | 10.3–17.8 | |
Use gloves (mittens) when contacting soil | χ2=12,2 p <0,001 | |||||||||
Yes | – | – | – | 461 | 75.0 | 71.4–78.2 | 274 | 84.8 | 80.5–88.4 | |
No | – | – | – | 154 | 25.0 | 21.8–28.6 | 49 | 15.2 | 11.6–19.5 | |
Have a land plot (dacha) where they grow vegetables and berries for consumption | – | |||||||||
Yes | – | – | – | – | – | – | 268 | 85.9 | 81.6–89.4 | |
No | – | – | – | – | – | – | 44 | 14.1 | 10.6–18.4 | |
Visited the beach or other places where contacted soil/sand | χ2=4,2 p=0,040 | |||||||||
Yes | – | – | – | 571.0 | 91.5 | 89.0–93.5 | 282.0 | 87.3 | 83.2–90.5 | |
No | – | – | – | 53.0 | 8.5 | 6.5–11.0 | 41.0 | 12.7 | 9.5–16.8 | |
Note.“–”, data is missing because the survey was not conducted.
Urban stay duration among 1–6-year-old children (Me=325 days) exceeded that of 7–17-year-old children and adults (Me=315 days for both groups) by 10 days; p <0.001. Adults showed the longest outdoor exposure duration (Me=300 days), which was 1.7–2.0 times higher than that of children.
Soil and sand play duration from May through October for 1–6-year-old children (Me=48 days) was 3.2-fold greater than for 7–17-year-old children (Me=15 days). The mean daily soil and sand play time for 1–6-year-old children exceeded that of 7–17-year-old children by 10 min/day (Me=50 min/day vs. Me=40 min/day, respectively).
Time spent at land plots (dacha), beaches, and other urban/suburban sites (with adults/children contacting soil) from May to October was 20 days longer for adults (Me=50 days) than children aged 7–17 (Me=30 days); p <0.001. Adults' median soil-handling duration (130 min/day) was 2.2 times higher than that of children aged 7–17.
Categorical EF analysis revealed 92.2% of surveyed children and adults left Arkhangelsk agglomeration urban areas annually. The highest proportions initiating sand/soil play at sandpits in May were children aged 1–6 (45.6%) and 7–17 (51.6%). Over half of preschoolers ended sand/soil play in sandpits in November (51.6%), whereas most school-aged children ended play in September (41.4%).
Analysis of soil ingestion facilitators in the studied age groups showed 15% of children aged 1-6 put hands/toys in their mouths during play or consumed soil-contaminated berries and vegetables. Less than 5% of preschoolers ingested sand (put sand into their mouths) during soil/sand play. However, 99.8% of surveyed children aged 1–6 cleaned their hands after walks outside (handwashing with water or wet wipes).
Among children aged 7–17, 8.8% of respondents put hands/toys in their mouths during soil/sand play. Approximately 6% of schoolchildren consumed soil-contaminated vegetables and berries. The majority of respondents aged 7–17 (98.8%) cleaned hands after walks outside (handwashing with water or wet wipes); 75.0% used rubber/cotton gloves (mittens) when contacting soil. A total of 91.5% of children in this age group visited beaches or urban/suburban areas with soil/sand contact from May to October.
Among adult respondents, 85.9% owned land plots (dachas) within urban/suburban areas, cultivating vegetables and berries for consumption. Approximately 90% visited beaches or other urban/suburban areas with soil/sand contact from May to October. Among adults, 98.7% cleaned hands post-soil contact (handwashing with water or wet wipes), 86.4% washed homegrown berries and vegetables before consumption, and 84.8% used rubber/cotton gloves (mittens) during soil work (see Table 2).
Average daily lead dose assessment from oral soil intake revealed that for children aged 1–6, doses calculated with regional EFs were 2.0 times lower and 2.5 times higher than doses calculated using WHO- and US EPA-recommended standard EFs, respectively. Respective adult doses exceeded those calculated using WHO- and US EPA-recommended standard EFs by 5.0-fold and 28.5-fold. Average daily doses of soil contaminants for children aged 1–6 calculated using WHO-recommended EFs exceeded those calculated using US EPA-recommended EFs by 4-fold, while adult doses were 6-fold higher (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Comparison of average daily doses of lead for children and adults through oral intake from soil, mg/(kg×day): EFs — exposure factors.
Discussion
Comparative assessment of questionnaire results across cities in the Arkhangelsk agglomeration revealed statistically significant differences in most quantitative EFs across age groups. Regional EFs were compared with standard values recommended by the US EPA [4–7] and Australian guidelines [9]. Comparison of pediatric population EFs with those established for Canada [18], Japan [19], Europe [8], and WHO recommendations [17] proved challenging due to differing age groups. Median-level comparison of regional EFs with standard values demonstrated that surveyed children's body weight in the 1–6 year group in Arkhangelsk agglomeration cities (18 kg) exceeded values recommended by US EPA (16 kg), WHO (15 kg), and Australian guidelines (17 kg). Children aged 7–17 years in our study had a median weight of 45 kg, which was 9 kg below US EPA and Australian national guidelines (both 54 kg) but 3 kg above WHO's recommendation (42 kg). Adult respondents' body weight (68 kg) exceeded Japan's recommended value (58.4 kg) by 9.6 kg but remained below WHO (70 kg), Canadian (77.5 kg), Australian (78 kg), US EPA (80 kg), and European (73.5 kg) national guidelines.
Body surface area values for children in the studied cities were 0.7 m2 (ages 1–6) and 1.4 m2 (ages 7–17), showing minor deviations from the values recommended by US EPA (0.6 m2 and 1.5 m2), WHO (0.5 m2 and 1.3 m2), and Australian guidelines (0.6 m2 and 1.6 m2). Among adults, body surface area in the studied cities was 1.8 m2 — matching WHO (1.8 m2) and US EPA (1.8 m2) standards — with slight variations from Japanese (1.6 m2), Australian (2.0 m2), Canadian, and European guidelines (1.9 m2).
Outdoor exposure duration for children aged 1–6 years in the studied cities averaged 150 min/day, which was 1.4 times lower than US EPA standard values (207 min/day) but 1.4 times higher than Australian ones (104 min/day). Children aged 7–17 years spent 180 min/day outdoors, which was 1.6 times higher than values recommended by Australian guidelines (112 min/day) and 10 minutes below US EPA recommendations (190 min/day). Adults' outdoor duration (300 min/day) was 1.6 times below standard values recommended by WHO (480 min/day) but 2.0–8.6 times higher than Canadian (35 min/day), Australian (180 min/day), American (144 min/day), Japanese (72 min/day), and European (120 min/day) norms.
Indoor exposure for children aged 1–6 years totaled 840 min/day in the studied cities, which was 1.2 times lower than Australian and US EPA standard values (~1000 min/day). Children aged 7–17 years spent 900 min/day indoors, which was 28 minutes above Australian and US EPA recommendations (872 min/day). Adults' indoor duration (720 min/day) was 1.3–1.7 times below recommended values.
WHO-established soil ingestion rates are 200 mg/day for children aged 1–6 years and 100 mg/day for children aged 7–17 years, respectively 4-fold and 2-fold higher than US EPA recommendations for these age groups (50 mg/day). The highest adult soil ingestion rates are recommended by WHO (100 mg/day) and Australian guidelines (50 mg/day), with Japan setting a rate of 47.7 mg/day, while the lowest is in Europe (1 mg/day). Canadian and American adult soil ingestion rates are identical, i.e. 20 mg/day.
Identified variations in exposure factor values affect chemical dose burdens from oral soil intake.
Differences in average daily lead doses calculated using regional EFs and WHO recommendations result from variations in body weight and soil contact duration: 0.83 hr/day vs. 1 hr/day for children aged 1–6 years during sand/soil play, and 2.2 hr/day vs. 1 hr/day for adults during soil-handling activities. Differences between average daily lead doses calculated using regional EFs/WHO recommendations and US EPA values result from differing soil ingestion rates (mg/day) and respondents' body weights.
This study has certain limitations. First, population surveys took place during the cold season, potentially influencing outcomes. Second, adult respondents (≥18 years) were predominantly female (70%). Exposure factor data for children aged 1–6 years were obtained through parent interviews (primarily mothers). Third, the majority of respondents (70%) were Arkhangelsk residents, precluding extrapolation across all Russian Arctic territories due to climatic variations.
Conclusion
Statistically significant differences were identified in quantitative and categorical values of most regional EFs related to soil ingestion across different age groups. Differences between regional and recommended (standard) EF values (body weight, body surface area, outdoor duration, indoor duration) affect chemical exposure doses from oral soil intake; this necessitates adjustment in health risk assessments for the studied population. To reduce risk assessment uncertainties, regional EFs must be investigated whose differences may be attributed to climatic/geographic conditions, outdoor time duration, and soil chemical contaminant exposure duration.
Using region-specific EF data characteristic of local populations enhances health risk assessment accuracy and reliability. Consequently, studies to collect EF data across Russian regions and establish a national EF database should be arranged.
Additional information
Authors’ contribution. A.N. Deryabin — made a significant contribution to the concept and design of the study, collected, analyzed and interpreted data, prepared tables, the first draft of the article, worked to improve it; T.N. Unguryanu — significantly revised the article on the importance of intellectual content, approved the final version for submission to the editor. All authors confirm that their authorship meets the international ICMJE criteria (all authors made a substantial contribution to the conception of the work, acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data for the work, drafting and revising the work, final approval of the version to be published and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work).
Funding source. This study was not supported by any external sources of funding.
Competing interests. The authors declares that there are no obvious and potential conflicts of interest associated with the publication of this article.
Consent for publication. The patients who participated in the study signed an informed consent to participate in the study and publish medical data.
1 Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 296 dated May 02, 2014 On the Land Territories of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation (as amended on March 05, 2020). Available at http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_162553/942772dce30cfa36b671bcf19ca928e4d698a928. Accessed on September 17, 2023.
About the authors
Aleksey N. Deryabin
Federal Service for Surveillance over Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing, Arkhangelsk Region office
Author for correspondence.
Email: deryabin-an@mail.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1853-8947
SPIN-code: 3611-0967
Russian Federation, 24 Gaidar Str., 163000 Arkhangelsk
Tatiana N. Unguryanu
Northern State Medical University
Email: unguryanu_tn@mail.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0001-8936-7324
SPIN-code: 7358-1674
MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), PhD
Russian Federation, ArkhangelskReferences
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