Medical and environmental issues of northern bioelementology. Literature Review



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The vital role of chemical elements as a link between inorganic and living nature is shown. Some particular and general medical and social consequences of mineral metabolism disorders (diseases of civilization, demographic problems) caused by regional features of the geochemical environment are given. The goals and objectives of the scientific and practical direction - bioelementology and medical elementology are shown. Based on literary and partially our own data, the biogeochemical characteristics of the Northern regions are considered, and poor study of the microelement status of residents of the northern regions is shown. Data on technogenic pollution of the northern biosphere with heavy metals are given. Emphasis is placed on the accumulation of mercury in the biosphere, which has a neurotoxic effect. Using mercury and selenium as an example, antagonistic relationships between chemical elements in a living organism are shown, which may result in the formation of secondary microelementoses. The reason for the deviation from the norm of physiological and biochemical parameters of a person in the conditions of the modern North is a violation of the structure and quality of nutrition. It was concluded that biogeochemical monitoring of the Arctic regions, identification of the “predisposition” of individual territories to biogeochemical endemics, and prevention of environmentally dependent diseases are necessary to preserve the health of residents.

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At the present stage of development of society, human vital indicators (health, life expectancy, its quality) are becoming increasingly dependent on the state of the environment. Chemical elements act as a link between inert nature and the biosphere, and in this sense, biochemical and physiological parameters of living organisms are derived from the geochemical environment. It has been suggested that in the process of evolution, it was chemical elements (microelements, bioelements, metals of life) that became the basis for the formation of all regulatory mechanisms (endocrine, immune, nervous), which are a superstructure in relation to the system of bioelements [1, 2]. The physiological system of microelements in higher organisms is integrating, uniting neuro-immune-hormonal regulatory complexes [3]. The biological role of microelements lies in their participation in the construction of macro- and microstructures of living organisms and in ensuring metabolic processes, due to maintaining the activity of enzymes, hormones, vitamins, cytokines and other biological molecules. Since the second half of the last century, there has been an active evolution of the elemental composition of the biosphere, caused by anthropogenic impact on the natural environment and increased migration of chemical substances. The consequence of the technogenesis of the biosphere was the transformation of biogeochemical cycles and the formation of artificial geochemical provinces [4, 5], characterized by a violation of the content of chemical elements in the soil and water, as well as in the body of plants, animals and, accordingly, humans living in this territory. The high dynamism of socio-ecological processes, technogenic transfer of inorganic matter, an increase in the rate of biospheric exchange of chemical elements, socially conditioned migration of food products lead to a violation of elemental homeostasis and a transformation of the elemental profile of human populations, unable to dynamically respond to revolutionary changes in society and the geochemical environment. Microelement homeostasis implies high resistance of an individual to the effects of the external environment. But excessive environmental loads, accompanied by changes in the chemical composition of the environment, lead to an imbalance of bioelements in living organisms (deficiency, excess). As a result of violation of the standard concentrations of individual elements and their relationships, destructive changes in cellular and tissue components, disturbances in metal-ligand complexes, dysfunctions of regulatory systems and the development of microelementoses - diseases of the biogeochemical nature of humans, animals, plants - occur [6, 7]. Moreover, such diseases are usually based on polyelement disorders, where one of the elements is the leading factor in the pathology. Well-known environmentally-induced diseases include iron deficiency anemia (iron, magnesium, copper and other elements), iodine deficiency diseases (iodine, selenium, etc.), immunodeficiency states (selenium, zinc, iodine, etc.), cardiovascular diseases (potassium, magnesium, selenium, iron), diseases of the musculoskeletal system (calcium, magnesium, strontium, silicon) and other structural and functional disorders associated with imbalance of bioelements. The idea that a violation of the elemental profile in the body is the environmental and pathological basis of diseases of civilization (cardiovascular diseases, oncology, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, etc.) has been formulated and substantiated [8]. Among residents of ecologically unfavorable regions with a deficiency of vital elements, fertility disorders [2], an increase in the frequency of infertile marriages, a growing demographic crisis [9, 10], as well as depopulation processes of small northern peoples [11, 12, 13] are noted. Features of the elemental status of residents of certain biogeochemical territories can determine the psychophysiological traits of a person. The potential role of biologically significant elements in the development of various forms of deviant behavior in humans (aggressiveness, depression, risk of alcoholism, drug use) has been shown [14, 15]. The listed problems are studied by a relatively new scientific direction Bioelementology - an interdisciplinary science that studies the unity of the inorganic and organic worlds based on the chemical composition of the ecological systems of the biosphere, including the human body [16, 17, 18, 19]. One of the areas of Bioelementology is Medical Elementology, the tasks of which include the study of the bioelement profile of a person with mineral metabolism disorders, its correction, as well as the development of scientific and practical measures for the prevention of elementoses [20, 21, 22]. According to researchers, the elimination of bioelement deficiency and the correction of the metal-ligand complex are comparable in physiological significance to the editing of the genetic apparatus [9].

Taking into account the medical and social significance of the inorganic component of the biosphere, knowledge of regional biogeochemistry, distribution of chemical elements in the environment (water, soil) and the body of humans, animals, and plants are of fundamental importance. In this regard, many developed countries study natural and anthropogenic factors that determine the content and distribution of chemical elements in soils, their availability to plants, and their ability to pass into the hydrosphere and atmosphere. In recent decades, regional population surveys have been conducted to establish reference values ​​of chemical elements in human biosubstrates. Based on the data obtained, conclusions are made about the elemental status of populations, and the policies of states and international organizations (WHO, UNICEF, UNESCO, etc.) are formed regarding population nutrition, food and environmental security [23, 24]. Large-scale projects devoted to studying the provision of the population of different territories with iron, iodine, selenium, as well as technogenic loads of heavy metals, and above all mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, are well known. Within the framework of the federal program "National System of Chemical and Biological Safety of the Russian Federation (2009-2014)" a large-scale study of the microelement status of the population of Russia was conducted. Information was obtained on the background levels of chemical elements in residents of various regions (federal districts), on the basis of which a 5-volume manual "Elemental Status of the Population of Russia" was published [25]. According to the results of the specified elemental screening, the northern regions of Russia turned out to be the least studied. The poor biogeochemical study of the North was explained by financial, personnel and methodological difficulties associated with the study of hard-to-reach and sparsely populated northern territories. Meanwhile, the North of Russia is a huge biogeochemical province with reduced adaptive capabilities of humans, where mineral metabolism disorders manifest themselves at the population level and require medical and ecological control [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. Moreover, biogeochemical studies indicate a common elemental status of residents of the Asian and European North, which is consistent with geochemical data and indicates a biogeochemical kinship of the northern territories of Russia. It is assumed that the uniform picture of elemental deviations indicates common mechanisms of human biochemical adaptation to environmental conditions [34]. The geochemical environment of the northern regions, due to mineral-poor podzolic soils and low-mineralized drinking water, is characterized by an extremely low content of biogenic elements. The soil and hydrological conditions of the North create biological loads for the local population and predetermine the risk of developing manifest and latent forms of microelementoses. One of the ecological and medical problems of the residents of the North is a deficiency of calcium and magnesium salts, which is associated with the predominant use of surface water by the population, which is characterized by weak mineralization and low hardness [35, 36, 32, 37, 38]. Differences in circulatory diseases and mortality depending on the "hardness" of drinking water have been established: a low concentration of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in water correlates with an increase in morbidity and mortality [10]. A deficiency of these elements contributes to the development of cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension. In regions with soft water, the incidence of hypertension is 25-30% higher than in other regions. The leading role in the development of arterial hypertension is given to magnesium: its deficiency is considered as the primary link in pathogenesis [39, 40, 41]. At the same time, with a sufficient level of calcium, magnesium or essential microelements, a protective effect of hard water has been noted, in particular a decrease in mortality rates [42]. A reduced calcium content is a key indicator in residents of the North. In addition to the use of soft drinking water, calcium deficiency is caused by the action of other northern-specific factors: hypoinsolation (deficiency of vitamin D), acclimatization decrease in the element, chronic action of low temperatures (participation in thermoregulation). The decrease in calcium in residents initiated by the cold is based on classical concepts about the role of calcium ions in maintaining temperature homeostasis [43]. It has been shown that the adaptation of the body to cold leads to a reliable decrease in calcium ions in the blood [44]. Low-mineralized (ultra-fresh) water, in addition to cardiovascular diseases, is the cause of secondary vitamin deficiencies. Possible vitamin deficiency is associated with the physiological (competitive) role of minerals (copper and iron salts) in the assimilation of certain vitamins (vit. B1, B12) by the body [45].

It has been shown that in migrants from the North, as they live in extreme conditions, there is a decrease in the level of not only calcium, but also other essential elements - iron, selenium, fluorine, which is regarded as a functional depletion of their reserves and the formation of an acclimatization deficit [46, 47, 48]. The problem of natural (endemic) elementoses is significantly exacerbated by the anthropogenic factor. The unfavorable biogeochemical nature of the North is aggravated by environmental pollution, including drinking water [49, 50] and the accumulation of toxic elements in living organisms, mainly due to the global transfer of pollutants from the middle latitudes to the Arctic [51, 42, 52]. The increase in the content of chemicals in the biosphere, in particular in rivers and seas, as well as the deterioration of their sanitary and microbiological indicators are occurring so rapidly that they threaten unpredictable consequences for the ecology of water systems and human health [53]. According to the researchers, when considering the geographical differences in pollution of the Arctic territories, it is necessary to take into account the movement of air masses and ocean currents that carry pollutants over huge distances, as well as the range and geography of migration routes of birds, fish and marine mammals. Ecological studies of the Arctic environment indicate an increase in pollution by heavy metals. It was found that the content of Fe, Zn, V, Cu, Ni, Mo, Co in Arctic ice is significantly higher than in surface waters, and therefore the melting of glaciers is a potential source of heavy metals. The accumulation of toxic elements in plants (lichen), meat (venison, marine mammals), poultry, fish and seafood in the biosphere of the northern regions has been shown [54]. The complex of heavy metals through food chains provokes the pathogenesis of chronic heart failure, neurodegenerative pathology, inflammatory bowel diseases, chronic kidney diseases, immunoallergic disorders, and also develops reproductive toxicity and exhibits properties of endocrine system dysregulators [22, 55]. When comparing the levels of exposure to toxic substances of the population of the circumpolar Arctic with the corresponding biomonitoring data in other regions of the planet, it was shown that Arctic populations experience heavier loads of some pollutants. For example, mercury concentrations in the blood of Arctic residents are much higher than among the non-Arctic population of the USA and Canada [52]. Mercury is a pollutant that causes particular concern for the state of Arctic ecosystems and human health. In terms of its impact on living organisms, it is one of the most toxic metals, acting as a cumulative poison [55]. The World Health Organization considers mercury to be one of the 10 main chemicals that pose a "serious public health problem" [56]. A meta-analysis of mercury content data in samples of indicator organisms in the North demonstrated a clear tendency for the metal level to increase from west to east. Much attention has recently been paid to the study of mercury accumulation in aquatic ecosystems, in particular, an increase in mercury levels in Arctic lakes has been noted. The main food source of mercury in the Northern regions are freshwater and sea fish, seafood, and the meat of marine mammals, in whose muscle tissue mercury bioaccumulates in the form of the organic compound methylmercury, which is a potent neurotoxin. Mercury and lead levels have been found to increase in reindeer meat; in recent decades, mercury and selenium levels have increased significantly in the livers of polar bears in Canada, Alaska, and Greenland (excess selenium has a toxic effect) [57]. In pregnant women living in Greenland, mercury and cadmium levels in the blood have also been linked to seafood consumption. Mercury has been shown to pose a serious risk to fertility and pregnancy outcomes, as it can cause reproductive dysfunction [58]. Despite the fact that traditional Aboriginal food is an important source of macro- and micronutrients, it contains elevated levels of heavy metals, organochlorine compounds, and radionuclides. Thus, among all cases of contamination of food samples in the Russian Arctic, Siberia and the Far East, contamination with mercury, lead, arsenic and cadmium is distributed in approximately equal proportions [52]. Elevated mercury levels were noted in 96% of the aborigines of the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug (continental region); the mercury level was increased by 4 times and correlated with the high content of this element in freshwater fish [59]. High mercury and lead levels were found in fish caught in Chukotka. Exceeding permissible mercury levels was shown in pink salmon caught in the rivers of continental Chukotka - sources of drinking water for local residents [60].Studies of residents of the Magadan Region and Chukotka showed the presence of mercury and lead in the hair of the indigenous population of coastal villages, whose diet is based on fish. The mercury concentration did not exceed the safe permissible level, but was higher than background indicators for the Russian Federation [61].

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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When analyzing toxic elements in the human body, one should take into account the manifestations of complex competitive-antagonistic relationships between bioelements, which may result in the displacement of essential elements by toxic ones with the formation of secondary hypoelementoses. Physiological antagonists of mercury are selenium and sulfur. Selenium, as a powerful antioxidant and immunomodulatory element, is a functional antidote to mercury, which, in turn, at excess concentrations, displaces selenium from biological environments. It is known that there is a strong positive relationship between the concentrations of mercury and selenium in the tissues of many species of fish-eating wild animals, especially predatory marine mammals. The relationship between mercury and selenium represents the interaction of the "toxicant - nutrient" system, which must be taken into account when assessing the environment. Mammals and birds with a high trophic level can be partially protected from the toxic effects of methylmercury due to chelation of inorganic mercury by selenium in a molar ratio of 1:1. These mercury-selenium ratios in muscles, liver and kidneys have been studied in a large number of species of marine animals from Greenland; the results showed that in most of the studied individuals, molar concentrations of selenium prevailed over the content of mercury in tissues [62]. Further technogenic accumulation of mercury in the World Ocean cannot be neutralized by antagonist elements, which poses a potential threat to public health. Elevated mercury levels in the aborigines of Chukotka (Chukchi, Eskimos) were noted as early as the 1970s [63]. Moreover, its excess content already at that time corresponded to areas of geochemical anomalies. But high mercury levels were balanced by a high selenium content. High concentrations of both elements can be explained by the peculiarities of the diet of the aboriginal inhabitants - the consumption of meat of marine animals (whale, walrus, seal), rich in both selenium and accumulating methylmercury. In the Northern regions, the accumulation of neurotoxic mercury in the body of residents with a simultaneous deficiency of essential selenium can be the basis of poorly studied microelementoses. In addition to participation in the development of neurological diseases, there is evidence that elevated mercury levels provoke the development of diabetes mellitus and hypertension, and the role of mercury in the formation of autistic behavior is also discussed [65]. As noted, in migrants of the North, as they live in the Arctic territories, there is a functional depletion of reserves of some essential elements. But a similar situation is also characteristic of the modern population of the indigenous population, in particular the aboriginal inhabitants of the North-East of Russia (Evens, Koryaks, Chukchi), who have a reduced content of a large group of essential elements (cobalt, magnesium, chromium, iodine), including selenium [65, 66]. The biogeochemical situation of the northern territories, relatively suitable for the indigenous population, can be uncomfortable and even extreme for the visiting population. Adaptive restructuring of migrants in the conditions of the North is accompanied by stress in metabolic processes, the formation of an acclimatization deficiency of elements and, ultimately, a violation of elemental homeostasis, which aggravates the natural deficiency of vital elements. In addition, the migration activity of the population and the discrepancy between the physiology of newcomers and the environment, including regional biogeochemistry, lead to a breakdown in adaptation and can be the basis for various diseases of a multifactorial nature [67], including complex elementoses. The natural conditions of the North (especially the Arctic territories) can be called a comfortable zone for human habitation with a large degree of conventionality. The territories of the North are an environment where people are exposed to the harsh impact of a complex of natural and climatic factors. These are extreme temperature and wind conditions, increased energy expenditure, contrasting photoperiodicity rhythm, sharp changes in atmospheric pressure, hypoxia, anomalies of geomagnetic fields, desertification and monotony of the landscape, etc. [68, 42, 69, 70, 37, 71]. The adaptation of migrants here is taking place with very strong tension of the adaptation systems with a tendency towards decompensation. These territories are absolutely unsuitable for the formation of a permanent population from alien contingents even with the creation of specialized life support systems [72].
The complex of natural and climatic factors of the North forms a global medical and biological phenomenon - polar tension syndrome [73], leading to disruption of metabolic processes and development of marginal forms of pathology. At the same time, the North is a kind of natural laboratory for studying adaptive reactions of man. Residence of human populations for a long historical period in extreme conditions (aboriginal population), as well as the presence in the North of a visiting population - migrants from comfortable natural and climatic regions, the manifestation of adaptive and maladaptive reactions, are an ideal natural base for studying issues of ecological physiology, including the study of human reserve capabilities in Arctic conditions. Of particular interest are the still existing "isolates" - aboriginal communities living in remote places of the North and preserving ethnic traditions, customs and way of life. Isolated communities of aboriginals are a unique model for studying the possibilities of human survival in extreme conditions (climate, biogeochemistry, nutrition, health, life expectancy). It is believed that the effect of northern-specific factors is practically not compensated by social or other protective measures [69]. But modern capabilities of civilization (functional clothing, nutrition adequate to metabolism) are able to partially neutralize the extreme impact of the North. But not all environmental factors can be weakened, neutralized or compensated by the "benefits" of civilization. In addition to seasonal light cycles, geomagnetic anomalies and changes in atmospheric pressure, the geochemical features of the Arctic regions should be attributed to the unchanging, constantly acting natural factors of the North - weakly mineralized drinking water and local food products poor in minerals, which predetermines the physiological deficiency of essential micronutrients. In addition, the natural deficiency of trace elements in migrants is aggravated by their acclimatization deficiency (iron, selenium, calcium), as well as the unbalanced structure of the diets of both migrants and the indigenous population. Moreover, nutrition plays the main role in ensuring metabolic and adaptive processes in the conditions of the North [74, 75, 76, 77, 78]. The aboriginal population of the North is relatively adapted to the natural and climatic environment, including the biogeochemical environment. It is known that the aboriginals of the North with a traditional way of life are characterized by a special metabolism - the "polar metabolic type" with a predominance of protein-lipid components in the diet and a minimum of carbohydrates [73. This type of metabolism has an anti-stress effect, prevents the development of cardiovascular diseases and promotes adaptation to extreme environmental conditions [79, 80]. This phenomenon is associated with the intake of unsaturated omega-3 fatty acids (fish, marine meat), which have an anti-sclerotic and cardioprotective effect [81, 82]. Researchers believe that evolutionarily developed metabolic mechanisms are genetically fixed [83, 67]. However, revolutionary changes in the natural and social environment (ecology, nutrition, lifestyle) are capable of epigenetically "breaking" hereditary metabolic mechanisms. The destruction of the traditional way of life of the aboriginal population of the North changed their diet [74]. The transition to European cuisine (mixed diet, excess of simple carbohydrates) led to a breakdown of adaptive processes and the development of metabolic diseases associated with the intensification of carbohydrate metabolism and an increase in atherogenic lipids in the blood [80, 82]. Metabolic dependence on lipid-protein nutrition and insufficient content of adaptogenic components, including minerals, in the Western type of nutrition lead to an additional decrease in the biological resistance of the human body in the conditions of the North [79]. At the same time, avitaminosis and the appearance of previously uncharacteristic diseases, in particular rickets, are noted among the aborigines [83]. Epidemiological studies of the Alaska Eskimos revealed the prevalence of diseases of atherosclerotic etiology in the population [84]. The natural deficiency of biogenic elements, aggravated by the loss of biologically valuable traditional nutrition, against the background of metabolic disorders, is accompanied by an increase in the deficiency of essential micronutrients in the aborigineous inhabitants of the North, including iron, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium and a number of other elements [85, 67, 86].
When planning biogeochemical studies in the Arctic regions, it is already possible to predict a priori microelementoses initiated by a deficiency of iron, iodine, calcium, magnesium and an excess of mercury, lead, cadmium. Possible endemics of natural or man-made genesis can be associated both with an imbalance of individual elements and with the negative impact on humans of their unpredictable combinations. Particular attention should be paid to iodine when studying the biogeochemistry of Arctic territories. Iodine deficiency remains a relevant and acute medical and social problem that has not been solved even in countries where methods of individual and collective prevention of iodine deficiency diseases have been sufficiently developed and implemented [87]. Changes in the dietary structure and a decrease in fish and seafood in the diet of residents of the Arctic regions are a predictor of the development of iodine deficiency diseases in them. In conditions of iodine deficiency in the biosphere and the absence of proper iodine prophylaxis, the population of the Arctic regions can be expected to have severe forms of iodine deficiency, which can be accompanied by thyroid pathology, impaired physical and mental development, immunodeficiency states, reproductive dysfunction, and early aging. According to literature, with a high prevalence of iodine deficiency, in some regions of the North, Siberia, and the Far East (the Republic of Sakha-Yakutia, Tyva, Khakassia, and some areas of the Arkhangelsk Region), foci of severe iodine deficiency have been discovered [88, 89, 90]. When analyzing iodine provinces, it should be taken into account that not all regions of Russia are iodine-deficient. There are also regions on the territory of Russia with sufficient and even increased iodine content in the biosphere, which is due to the high level of the element in natural waters. Accumulation of iodine in water is found in areas where oil and gas-bearing layers are located close to aquifers. Groundwater in these areas, used for water supply and irrigation of agricultural crops, contains high concentrations of iodine, allowing its industrial extraction. According to the data of the biogeochemical laboratory of the USSR Academy of Sciences [91], in Russia the boundary of the natural prevalence of iodine-deficiency goiter passes through the Vychegda River (Komi Republic, Arkhangelsk Region). Territories located north of the Vychegda River are iodine-rich [92]. An example of iodine-saturated natural water in the European North is the groundwater of the Severodvinsk Depression. It has been shown that the iodine content in the aquifer complex of the Northern Dvina Delta is 5-30.5 mg/l [93], which made it possible to develop a technology for producing crystalline iodine in this area. Conclusion. Thus, the population of the Arctic regions is exposed to the negative impact of northern-specific factors, including the impact of a mineral-poor habitat. The result is the manifestation of specific elementoses that disrupt the adaptive capabilities of northern populations, which requires medical and ecological control of the northern regions and the prevention of diseases of a biogeochemical nature. The urgent need for the development of northern territories, the development of the Arctic shelf, exploration and extraction of minerals, border protection increases the influx of people from other regions of Russia to the North (military service, shift production, long-term residence). Social and migration activity dictates the need for biogeochemical studies, geochemical zoning of the Arctic regions (water, soil, food, elemental status of the population), identifying the "predisposition" of individual territories to biogeochemical endemics and correction and prevention of northern elementoses.

 

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About the authors

Anatoly Gorbachev

N. Laverov Federal Center for Integrated Arctic Research of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Author for correspondence.
Email: gor000@mail.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-2432-3408
SPIN-code: 7050-3412
Scopus Author ID: 7103379782
ResearcherId: JFK-2466-2023

Chief Researcher, Laboratory of Regulatory Mechanisms of Immunity

Russian Federation, 163020 Arkhangelsk, Russia, Nikolsky ave.20

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